The Purpose Of Punishment In The Justice System Criminology Essay

The Purpose Of Punishment In The Justice System Criminology Essay Case Study 2: The purpose of Punishment within the criminal justice system. What role does punishment serve within the criminal justice system? Consider the part played by reductivism, incapacitation, retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation as by-products of the perceived need for the criminal justice system to punish offenders. How have political policies and other ideologies affected the state emphasis on the need to punish offenders? In the following paragraphs it is going to be explained the role of punishment within the criminal justice system. Furthermore, we are going to get involved with theories and objectives related to punishment such as: reductivism, deterrence, rehabilitation, incapacitation and finally retribution. Beginning our case study we have to argue that there is considerable controversy over the effectiveness of punishment in reducing crime, but whether or not its actual effectiveness, still is the only method being used conforming someone who made a misdeed, back to society and freedom. Punishment can be simply defined as a legally approved method designed to facilitate the task of crime control (Carrabine, 2004), and its main purpose is to rehabilitate the offender, expiate the victim and dissuade others from becoming wrongdoers. In order to successfully create a holistic view on the matter, we have to focus on many punishment perspectives and theories as it is the only way for a critical evaluation. punishment as a social institution is an inherently complex business that needs to be approached from a range of theoretical perspectives as no single interpretation will grasp the diverse meanings generated by punishment (Carrabine, 2004). The reductive theory of punishment justifies that punishment occurs because it helps to prevent and reduce future consequences of crime, acting as a forward-looking theory for the general good. Moreover, claims that if punishment takes place, future crime will be less than if no penalty were inflicted. For punishment to reduce future crimes, the pain and unhappiness caused to the offender must be outweighed by the avoidance of unpleasantness to other people in the future (Cavadino, 2002). Therefore, it is a moral action against criminals (famously advanced by Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832) since it produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Nevertheless, there are many mechanisms of reduction which will be shown below. Deterrence based on utilitarian theories, is a method of reduction and its main perspective is that if you cause someones fear, then he will be afraid to offend and break the law (tough on crime). Moreover, separates deterrence into general and individual justifying that general is when punishment dissuades others from following the offenders example, in spite of individual deterrence which aims to teach delinquent not to repeat the behaviour. Deterrence lacks to produce strong and validate evident of its effectiveness as no certain penalty prevented someone from committing a given crime. What is more, referring to the individual deterrence, my opinion is that we cannot say whether or not an offender stopped his criminal behaviour, simply because not all crimes are being convicted. Also, according to official crime statistics, I believe, there is not such effectiveness as Michael Howards supported about prison/punishment and toughness on crime. Prison works. It ensures that we are protected from murderers, muggers and rapists- and it makes many who are tempted to commit crime think twice (Michael Howard, Home Secretary 1993). Rehabilitation is another mechanism of crime reduction which is going to be produced and evaluated on the following paragraphs. According to rehabilitation the idea of punishment is to apply treatment to the offender so that he is made capable afterwards to return back to the society as a law-abiding member. Rehabilitation is viewed as a humane alternative comparing to the harshness of retribution and deterrence giving more a programme function to the punishment, without that meaning that an offender would receive a more lenient penalty for his offence. An important feature of rehabilitation is that the offender could stay on probation whether that means outside prison or inside until he is thought to be ready. Critics though assume that if the prison administrator is the responsible one who decides if offender made a progress and he is ready to go, then corruption may occur which will falsify the true situation. Finally, another issue is that an offender guilty for minor crime proba bly could not tolerate lengthy detentions simple because of inability or refusal to adopt a subservient attitude toward prison officers and authority in general. Continuing our study we will refer to retributive theory which is in total antithesis of reductivism and justifies that punishment came as result of criminality. An attractive feature is that retributivism is a natural connection between the retributive approach and the idea that both offenders and victims have rights. Reductivist theory always founds it difficult to encompass the notion of rights, even when it comes to providing entirely innocent people with a right not to be punished. Retributivism has no such problem, since it follows automatically from the retributive principle that it must be wrong to punish non-offenders. Criminals, according to retributivist principle deserve the punishment because in some way, evil for evil somehow make a right. Additionally, according to retributivism, severity of a punishment should be proportionate to the gravity of the offence (tariff). What is more, retributive punishment, argues that applies fairly and equally to all of us as long as we all live in the same equilibrium followed by the same norms and values. The main issue with such a theory is that it would be objective only if we were all genuinely equal sharing the same advantages. Detected offenders typically start from a position of social disadvantage (Cavadino, 2002). From the moment retributive punishment tries to inflict equality restoring the balance, then increases inequality rather than do the opposite. The last theory refers to the act of making the offender not capable of committing a crime and is known as the incapacitation theory. According to that, offenders who have committed repeated crimes or thought to be dangerous are being punished by execution or lengthy incarceration (life imprisonment). Such a punishment though unfortunately makes it difficult to identify that kind of offenders. Thus, it is extremely controversial the principle of incapacitation especially to those who assist that punishment should advocate equal retribution followed by dignity. An important controversial example evaluating incapacitation is the chemical-castration of sex offenders (against children) with hormonal drugs which was first adopted in the U.S of California in 1996 and proved that drugs alone did not make the offender incapable of committing sex crimes. To conclude, I would like to say that I have not come to a conclusion yet on whether or not punishment actually helps and rehabilitates the delinquents. But I am sure that punishment so far is the function which separates those who live legally and those who do not. I also believe that the fear of punishment changes people behaviour a lot, as we all are afraid of punishment is that not true? Ultimately, I would like to finish with Sir Thomas Mores opinion which finds me totally agreed. Society first creates thieves, and then punishes them for stealing. There has always existed a curiously symbolic relationship between the criminal and society. It is not so much that society tolerates crime, rather the structure of modern society inevitably creates situations and circumstances in which crime occurs(Weisser, 1979).

Personality Theory

Learning is defined as Any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience (Coon). It is not, however, a temporary change caused by outside forces. Therefore, things such as motivation, disease and injury cannot be considered to be a form of learning. This is because once the disease, injury, etc. has been removed, behavior will return to it s state before the influence. There are 2 main keys to every learning process: the reinforcement, which is anything that increases the chances that the desired response will take place, and the response, which is the behavior that takes place as a reaction to the reinforcement. An antecedent is the event which takes place before a response, and is the basis for Classical Conditioning. A consequence is something that follows a response, and is the foundation for what psychologists call Operant Conditioning. Classical Conditioning is based on what takes place before a response. It begins with some action that will inevitably produce a response. That action is then associated with another that does not induce a response, or a Neutral Stimulus. After enough repetition, the neutral stimulus which did not previously produce a response will now, on its own, produce the response of the action it was coupled with. It is now what is called a Conditioned Stimulus, or a stimulus that produces a response because it has been paired with another. A good example of Classical Conditioning is presented by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist. Pavlov noticed that his dogs would drool when he put food in their mouths. After some time passed, he noticed that the dogs would begin to drool upon seeing the food. Then, the dogs began drooling at the sight of Pavlov. It was then that Pavlov noticed that learning had taken place. The dogs had associated the food with the appearance of Pavlov. The dog s drooling did not have to be learned: it was what is called a reflex, or an automatic response. The reflex is a type of Unconditioned Response, a response that happens on its own. That reflex to drool was finally paired with seeing Pavlov and expecting to be fed. Eventually, the sight of Pavlov was enough to make the dog drool, without ever presenting food. The dog s drooling had then become a Conditioned Response, or a response that has been conditioned by stimuli. This is a prime example of Classical Conditioning. Operant Conditioning focuses on consequences, or what follows a response. In this type of conditioning, a response is followed by some type of reinforcement. This reinforcement can be something good, something bad, or nothing at all. If an action results in a punishment, the action is less likely to take place. However, if the action is followed by reinforcement, such as praise, food, or other rewards, the action is more likely to be repeated. An example of Operant Conditioning is found in the works of B. F. Skinner. Although he rejected the ideas of theories of learning, (Skinner), he is well known for one of his creations, dubbed the Skinner Box. A skinner box is a small, barren chamber into which a hungry rat is placed. The box is featureless, except for a lever on one wall. As the rat explores, it accidentally presses this lever, and a pellet of food or a drop of water is released. Eventually, the rat will learn to correspond the lever to receiving a food pellet. He will then move the lever when he is hungry. This is called the Law of Effect: responses that have desirable effects are repeated, while negative effects will lessen the tendency for the response to take place. What has happened is a good example of Operant Conditioning. The rat is hungry. The rat, then, has had reinforcement (the food pellet) to perform a response (the lever press). In this situation, the food pellet acts as an Operant Reinforcer, or something that encourages the event which it follows. In both of these instances, Acquisition has occurred. Acquisition is the training in which learning occurs. Once it has taken place, Expectancy comes into view. Expectancy is the anticipation that the learned conditioning will continue to produce the same response. However, if the reinforcement is taken away from conditioning, we can expect that the conditioned response will begin to fade. This is called Extinction. This occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of it s reinforcement. However, occasionally, a response may resurface after it is believed to be extinct. This is known as Spontaneous Recovery. Once a response has been conditioned, the response will continue to take place unless the reinforcement is removed. In many cases, however, a reinforcement that is similar to the original will still bring about the desired response. This is called Stimulus Generalization. An example of this would be if someone who looked like Pavlov walked into the view of the dogs. They may begin drooling because of their conditioning to do so at the appearance of Pavlov. After some time, though, the dogs will learn to distinguish between Pavlov and the imposter. After that point, the dogs would respond differently to the 2 men. This learning is known as Stimulus Discrimination. Conditioning has been very useful to psychologists and social workers who want to effect behavior. However, these laws of conditioning can have negative repercussions. For instance, phobias stem from conditioning, usually in early childhood. For instance, a child could have a negative experience with a kitten, or other house pet. This negative experience, previously a Neutral Stimulus, has now been linked with fear, anxiety, and other negative emotional responses. This process is called Conditioned emotional response. This creates a phobia, or an unrealistic fear of a thing or situation. There are different ways to treat and cure phobias. The first is called Desensitization. This would be used, for example, with a person with a fear of heights. The person would gradually be taken higher off the ground, perhaps over days, weeks, or longer. This would gradually introduce them to the fear and eventually allow them to be free of the phobia. In more extreme cases, a conditioning called Vicarious Classical Conditioning is used. If someone had an extreme phobia of snakes, the person might be exposed to a video tape of someone holding a snake. Through small steps such as these, the person could eventually recover from the phobia.

Example: Economics

Importance Of Economics Everyone is a part of economy and everyone uses the rules of economy too. From the time we are born, we become consumers of various products and services (say, medical services, baby foods, and so on). We grow and diversify to attain various different roles as producers, traders, mediators and agents. Today’s world is that of â€Å"economic imperialism†, where economical factors, most importantly, money dictates all the elements of the society, not to forget close family relations. With recession wreaking havoc, economics is something which even ignorant households are learning.Economics is a science which deals with production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Therefore, we can conclude that whatever involves â€Å"transfer of money† includes â€Å"economics†. There are two schools of economics, namely, microeconomics and macroeconomics. The combined results of these two determine the actual effect of economics o n people. To list all the important functions of economics would be literary impossible as newer issues keep creeping up. In the following lines, we have described some broad and basic functions of economics. Significance Of Economics Optimizes Resource UsageIn today’s world, the amount of resources available to us is reducing each day. This condition will only worsen, if we keep using our resources with low efficiency and effectiveness. Economics provides a mechanism for looking at possible ways to optimize resource utilization and reduce wastages. Utilizes the â€Å"Opportunity Cost† This is another principle used for resources in which the scarce resources are utilized efficiently, after calculating and checking the opportunity cost. A simple theory of exclusion is put into play. If you choose something over another thing, then what loss you sustain is the opportunity  cost.If we minimize the opportunity cost, we get maximum profits. For example, a person who inve sts $10,000 in a stock denies himself the interest that could have been accrued, by leaving the $10,000 in the bank account instead. The opportunity cost of the decision to invest in stock, is the value of the interest. When this principle is used in budget allocations by government, it results in better growth rates. Gains Social Efficiency If a society keeps on putting money into its economy with no profits or loss, then the economy becomes inefficient and so does the society, as it gets dependent on the economy.If the input into an economy is larger than the output, then the society starts disintegrating and falls prey to destructive social evils, like unemployment and poverty. The same is the case if the economy is stagnant. Understanding of economics leads to better planned economy. Also, profitable economic steps introduced largely aid in the society’s overall prosperity. Stabilizes The Overall Economy The stability of an economy is inevitable to any country or society. Only through economically sound practices can we ensure that the economy is stable and growing at the same time.In recent times, when the world’s economy fell, only a few countries were able to sustain their growth rate and prevent severe monetary impacts on their citizens. Understands Individual Economics This is important for the growth of individuals economically. A person needs to understand the economic situations and stipulations present in his own life. He may not need the hardcore subjective understanding of economics, but he definitely needs to understand the economic practices that he must follow to eradicate chances of going broke or bankrupt.Also, understanding of economics helps in using the resources in the best possible way and gaining maximum profit. What is Economics? A Definition of Economics Ever wonder why food costs rise when gas prices spike? Ever question why U. S. politicians worry when other countries talk of going bankrupt? Ever wonder why you canâ €™t get a good interest rate on your savings account? All of these phenomena can be explained through economics. Economics is the study of the production and consumption of goods and the transfer of wealth to produce and obtain those goods.Economics explains how people interact within markets to get what they want or accomplish certain goals. Since economics is a driving force of human interaction, studying it often reveals why people and governments behave in particular ways. There are two main types of economics:  macroeconomics  andmicroeconomics. Microeconomicsfocuses on the actions of individuals and industries, like the dynamics between buyers and sellers, borrowers and lenders. Macroeconomics, on the other hand, takes a much broader view by analyzing the economic activity of an entire country or the international marketplace.A study of economics can describe all aspects of a country’s economy, such as how a country uses its resources, how much time laborers dev ote to work and leisure, the outcome of investing in industries or financial products, the effect of taxes on a population, and why businesses succeed or fail. People who study economics are called economists. Economists seek to answer important questions about how people, industries, and countries can maximize their productivity, create wealth, and maintain financial stability.Because the study of economics encompasses many factors that interact in complex ways, economists have different theories as to how people and governments should behave within markets. Adam Smith, known as the Father of Economics, established the first modern economic theory, called the Classical School, in 1776. Smith believed that people who acted in their own self-interest produced goods and wealth that benefited all of society. He believed that governments should not restrict or interfere in markets because they could regulate themselves and, thereby, produce wealth at maximum efficiency.Classical theory forms the basis of capitalism and is still prominent today. A second theory known as Marxism states that capitalism will eventually fail because factory owners and CEOs exploit labor to generate wealth for themselves. Karl Marx, the theory’s namesake, believed that such exploitation leads to social unrest and class conflict. To ensure social and economic stability, he theorized, laborers should own and control the means of production. While Marxism has been widely rejected in capitalistic societies, its description of capitalism’s flaws remains relevant.A more recent economic theory, the Keynesian School, describes how governments can act within capitalistic economies to promote economic stability. It calls for reduced taxes and increased government spending when the economy becomes stagnant, and increased taxes and reduced spending when the economy becomes overly active. This theory strongly influences U. S. economic policy today. As one can see, economics shapes the world. Through economics, people and countries become wealthy. Because buying and selling are activities vital to survival and success, studying economics can help one understand human thought and behavior.Branches of Economics Economics has two branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics  is the branch of economics that deals with the personal decisions of consumers and entrepreneurs. Its primary concern is to help consumers and investors make their lives better by increasing their earnings and satisfying their needs despite limited resources. Also included in its study are the consumers' decisions on what products to buy and how the cost of commodities is determined. Macroeconomics  deals with the larger aspects of a nation's economy, such as the sectors of agriculture, industry, and service.It aims to (a) speed up the economy's growth rate and increase total production; (b) increase the rate of employment; (c) keep the prices of commodities stable so that they remain affordable; and (d) have sufficient reserves for foreign exchange for importing goods and paying off loans. Economists help in solving problems like unfair wages, rapid population growth, people migration to city centers, high crime incidence, and loss of human resources due to overseas migration. Economic Methodology What is the difference between positive and normative economics?Positive economics  is objective and fact based, while  normative economics  is subjective and value based. Positive economic statements do not have to be correct, but they must be able to be tested and proved or disproved. Normative economic statements are opinion based, so they cannot be proved or disproved. While this distinction seems simple, it is not always easy to differentiate between the positive and the normative. Many widely-accepted statements that people hold as fact are actually value based.For example, the statement, â€Å"government should provide basic healthcare to all citi zens† is a normative economic statement. There is no way to prove whether government â€Å"should† provide healthcare; this statement is based on opinions about the role of government in individuals' lives, the importance of healthcare and who should pay for it. The statement, â€Å"government-provided healthcare increases public expenditures† is a positive economic statement, because it can be proved or disproved by examining healthcare spending data in countries like  Canada  and  Britain  where the government provides healthcare.Disagreements over public policies typically revolve around normative economic statements, and the disagreements persist because neither side can prove that it is correct or that its opponent is incorrect. A clear understanding of the difference between positive and normative economics should lead to better policy making, if policies are made based on facts (positive economics), not opinions (normative economics). Nonetheless, numerous policies on issues ranging from international trade to  welfare  are at least partially based on normative economics.Deduction in Economics Deductive economics starts with a set of axioms about economies and how they work, and relies on these principles to explain individual cases or events. Supply and demand analysis, a staple in any introductory economics course, is an example of deductive reasoning because it involves a set of generally accepted principles about demand and supply. To summarize, deduction in economics starts with a generally accepted principle and proceeds to the specific. Induction in EconomicsInductive reasoning in economics does the reverse of deductive reasoning; namely, it begins with an individual problem or question and proceeds to form a general principle based on the evidence observed in the real world of economic activity. For example, an economist who asks if a government program of public works spending will stimulate a region's economy wi ll proceed to research the issue, collect and analyze data, and based on conclusions, form a general theory about the economic impact of fiscal policies. Classification of economic resources? here are two types of economic resources: a. Property resources b. human resources Human resources  is the set of individuals who make up the  workforce  of an  organization,  business sector  or an  economy. â€Å"Human capital† is sometimes used synonymously with human resources, although human capital typically refers to a more narrow view; i. e. , the knowledge the individuals embody and can contribute to an organization. Likewise, other terms sometimes used include â€Å"manpower†, â€Å"talent†, â€Å"labour†/†labor† or simply â€Å"people†. The Four Factors of Production in EconomicsLand Land refers to the natural resources that are available and used in the production of goods. For example, a heavy mining industry could not ex ist without the natural deposits of valuable minerals in the ground, while a thriving farming community would have a hard time surviving with poor soil and no rainfall. Labor Labor refers to the human inputs of work to produce the goods and services. For example, the training required for employees to successfully operate machines to produce cars would be considered as part of labor.In addition, the mental capacity to perform tasks and invent new products is also part of labor. The only human element not included in labor is entrepreneurship. Capital Capital refers to the tools and machines that are required for the production of the product. For example, when making cars, the capital would include the factory and all the machinery in the factory used in making the car. On a farm, the capital would include the tractors, harvesters and other equipment used to grow crops or raise livestock. EntrepreneurshipEntrepreneurship refers to the economic motivation for an individual to attempt to make a profit from an idea. For example, people may know how to build cars, machines may be available and the land for the factories for sale, but it takes an entrepreneur to put those factors together in an attempt to make a profit. Entrepreneurs put their own resources at stake by personally investing in the company. For example, a business owner is not paid an hourly wage like the people who work for her. Instead, her income depends on the success or failure of the business venture. production possibility curveA graphical  representation  of the alternative  combinations  of the  amounts  of two  goods  or  services  that an  economy  can  produce  by transferring  resources  from one  good  or  service  to the other. This  curve  helps in determining what  quantity  of a nonessential good or a service an economy can  afford  to produce without jeopardizing the  required  production  of an  essential good  or servi ce. Also calledtransformation curve. What are the three basic economic problems? the basic economic problem is the unlimited wants and needs of human which results to scarcity of resources. what are the needs? the needs are the things we must posses in order to survive like food,water, clothing,shelter. while the wants are those things that human would like to have in order to improve there status in life. we limited resources that'a why encounter this problem. the economic resources like land, labor,and capital which are the factors if production are insufficient to satisfy our needs and wants. All 3 problems are more clearly explained using a ppf/ppc: 1) What to produce: This problem is what should the  economy  produce in order to satisfy consumer wants (as seen by demand curves) as best as possible using the limited resources available.If a country produces goods in a way that maximises  consumer satisfaction  then the economy is allocatively efficient. 2) How to produce : This problem is how to combine production inputs to produce the goods decided in problem 1 as most efficiently as possible. An  economy  achieves productive efficiency if it produces goods using the least resources possible. A productively effiecient economy is represented by an economy that is able to produce a combination of goods on the actual curve of the PPF. 3) For whom to produce: Should the economy produce goods targetted towards those who have high incomes or those who have low incomes.What sort of demographic group should the goods in the economy that are produced be targetted towards? If the economy is addresses this problem then it has reached preto efficiency or pareto optimality. If all three problems are addressed at any one time then the economy has achieved static efficiency. If the economy achieves static efficiency over a period of time then it is dynamically efficient. All these problems are focused around the problem of unlimited wants and limited resource s. Where resources are the fators of production (such as labor, capital, technology, land.. ) which are used to produce the products that satisy the wants. conomic system An  organized  way in which a state or  nation  allocates  its  resources  and  apportions  goods and services  in the national  community. Types of Economic Systems â€Å"You can't always get what you want. † That's what the Rolling Stones sang, anyway (check it out: great song even if it's a bit before your time). And while Mick Jagger probably didn't have Econ 101 in mind, he managed to sum up perfectly the core concept underlying all economics. Scarcity  is the fundamental challenge confronting all individuals and nations. We all face limitations†¦ so we all have to make choices.We can't always get what we want. How we deal with these limitations—that is, how we prioritize and allocate our limited income, time, and resources—is the basic economic challenge that has confronted individuals and nations throughout history. But not every nation has addressed this challenge in the same way. Societies have developed different broad economic approaches to manage their resources. Economists generally recognize four basic types of economic systems—traditional, command, market, and mixed—but they don’t completely agree on the question of which system best addresses the challenge of scarcity.A  traditional economic system  is—here's a shocker—shaped by tradition. The work that people do, the goods and services they provide, how they use and exchange resources†¦ all tend to follow long-established patterns. These economic systems are not very dynamic—things don’t change very much. Standards of living are static; individuals don’t enjoy much financial or occupational mobility. But economic behaviors and relationships are predictable. You know what you are supposed to do, who you trade with , and what to expect from others. In many traditional economies, community interests take precedence over the individual.Individuals may be expected to combine their efforts and share equally in the proceeds of their labor. In other traditional economies, some sort of private property is respected, but it is restrained by a strong set of obligations that individuals owe to their community. Today you can find traditional economic systems at work among Australian aborigines and some isolated tribes in the Amazon. In the past, they could be found everywhere—in the feudal agrarian villages of medieval Europe, for example. In a  command economic system  or  planned economy, the government controls the economy.The state decides how to use and distribute resources. The government regulates prices and wages; it may even determine what sorts of work individuals do. Socialism  is a type of command economic system. Historically, the government has assumed varying degrees of cont rol over the economy in socialist countries. In some, only major industries have been subjected to government management; in others, the government has exercised far more extensive control over the economy. The classic (failed) example of a command economy was the communist Soviet Union. The collapse of the communist bloc in the late 1980s led to the emise of many command economies around the world; Cuba continues to hold on to its planned economy even today. In  market economies, economic decisions are made by individuals. The unfettered interaction of individuals and companies in the marketplace determines how resources are allocated and goods are distributed. Individuals choose how to invest their personal resources—what training to pursue, what jobs to take, what goods or services to produce. And individuals decide what to consume. Within a  pure market economy  the government is entirely absent from economic affairs.The United States in the late nineteenth century, at the height of the lassez-faire era, was about as close as we've seen to a pure market economy in modern practice. A  mixed economic system  combines elements of the market and command economy. Many economic decisions are made in the market by individuals. But the government also plays a role in the allocation and distribution of resources. The United States today, like most advanced nations, is a mixed economy. The eternal question for mixed economies is just what the right mix between the public and private sectors of the economy should be. Why It Matters TodayHalf of the twentieth century went down as a global battle between defenders of free markets (democratic capitalist nations, led by the United States) and believers in command economies (the communist bloc, led by the Soviet Union). The US and USSR never went to war against each other directly, but dozens of smaller (yet still tragic and significant) wars unfolded around the world as bitter fights over economic system s turned bloody. Korea, Vietnam, Nicaragua, Afghanistan, Angola†¦ millions of people died in the various â€Å"hot† theaters of a Cold War fought to decide whether markets or states should control economic affairs.The great irony was that the Cold War finally ended not on a battlefield, but because the Soviet economy finally self-destructed by the late 1980s. For most of the world, the Soviet collapse proved that command economies were simply inferior to the market-dominated mixed economies of the capitalist world. Of course, China – still ruled politically by an authoritarian Communist Party, even though its economy is now more mixed if not exactly free – is now the biggest creditor nation to the United States. What are six major economic goals of a market economy? Freedom, efficiency, equality, stability, security, growth.The 6 Economic Goals Objectives: – Summarize the basic economic goals societies share 6 Economic Goals – Economic Efficie ncy – Making the most of resources – Societies must be efficient – Economic Freedom – Freedom from govt intervention in the production & distribution of G & S – Economic Security and Predictability – We want to know that G & S will be available (Paychecks too) – Safety Net- – govt programs that protect ppl experiencing unfavorable economic conditions 6 Economic Goals Cont. – Economic Equity – Fair distribution of wealth – Economic Growth and Innovation Innovation leads to growth, and economic growth leads to a higher standard living – Standard of Living- – level of economic prosperity – Other Goals – Environmental Protection, Consumer Safety Millennium Development Goals â€Å"MDG† redirects here. For other uses, see  MDG (disambiguation). The Millennium Development Goals are aUN  initiative. The  Millennium Development Goals  (MDGs) are eight  international devel opment  goals  that were officially established following theMillennium Summit  of the  United Nations  in 2000, following the adoption of the  United Nations Millennium Declaration.All 193 United Nations  member states  and at least 23  international organizations  have agreed to achieve these goals by the year 2015. The goals are: Eradicating  extreme poverty and hunger, Achieving  universal primary education, Promoting  gender equality  and  empowering  women, Reducing  child mortality  rates, Improving  maternal health, Combating  HIV/AIDS,  malaria, and other diseases, Ensuring environmental  sustainability, and Developing a global partnership for development. [1]Each of the goals has specific stated targets and dates for achieving those targets. To accelerate progress, the  G8  Finance Ministers agreed in June 2005 to provide enough funds to the  World Bank, the  International Monetary Fund  (IMF), and the  African Develo pment Bank  (AfDB) to cancel an additional $40 to $55  billion in debt owed by members of theHeavily Indebted Poor Countries  (HIPC) to allow impoverished countries to rechannel the resources saved from the forgiven debt to social programs for improving health and education and for alleviating poverty.Debate has surrounded adoption of the MDGs, focusing on lack of analysis and justification behind the chosen objectives, the difficulty or lack of measurements for some of the goals, and uneven progress towards reaching the goals, among other criticisms. Although developed countries' aid for achieving the MDGs has been rising over recent years, more than half the aid is towards debt relief owed by poor countries, with much of the remaining aid money going towards natural disaster relief and military aid which do not further development.Progress towards reaching the goals has been uneven. Some countries have achieved many of the goals, while others are not on track to realize any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date and concluded with the adoption of a global action plan to achieve the eight anti-poverty goals by their 2015 target date.There were also new commitments on women's and children's health, and new initiatives in the worldwide battle against poverty, hunger, and disease. Government organizations assist in achieving those goals, among them are the United Nations Millennium Campaign, the Millennium Promise Alliance, Inc. , the Global Poverty Project, the  Micah Challenge, The Youth in Action EU Programme, â€Å"Cartoons in Action† video project, and the 8 Visions of Hope global art project.

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